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How credible is smiths hypothesis concerning monastic inves essays

How credible is smiths hypothesis concerning monastic inves essays How credible is smiths hypothesis concerning monastic investment in agriculture? Use case studies to support your answer. Smiths hypothesis seems to be that in the circumstances of the 13th century being an age of rising production in which a feudal reaction occurred, the Benedictines invested productively in agriculture and were pioneers of agriculture. However, Smith never describes or presents his ideas as a hypothesis and therefore leaves some doubt regarding what his hypothesis is. For this reason it may be more sensible to analyse and assess the credibility of smiths ideas concerning investment in agriculture. A second caveat is that Smiths ideas are not principally about monastic investment but rather about the relationship between Benedictine monasteries, agriculture and the economy. The credibility of Smiths ideas therefore depends largely on whether or not medieval agrarian life and economy is as he suggests. In his study of Canterbury Priory Smith cites a number of features and characteristics of the monastery and the economy which supports his basic argument. The fact that the Priory was greatly in debt when Henry of Eastry took up the priorate but managed to clear all its debts by the end of his tenure supports this idea in two ways. Debt would have acted as an incentive to use resources productively and the fact that the debt was cleared suggests that money was coming in. Perhaps the key point in this period in support of Smiths idea is the rising price of corn, something which the priory had access to in abundance. It is clear that this rise in prices coincided with the transition back to demesne farming, giving the abbeys far greater control over production and use of agriculture. These set of circumstance suggest that not only might the monasteries like to make a profit from agriculture but were also ideally placed to do so. ...

CRITICALLY EXAMINE RECENT RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF GRANDPARENTS Essay

CRITICALLY EXAMINE RECENT RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF GRANDPARENTS AS CARERS ON CHILDRENS LIVE AND DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOME - Essay Example he need for extended families is compounded by the rise economic stagnation manifested by reduction in real wages, and overall reduction in jobs offering benefits and a living wage, and government sector retrenchments for single mothers, and working poor (Baker, Silverstein, and Putney, 2008, p. 2).The result is a compromise in the ability of parents to raise their children while increasing the childcare gap. In this case, grandparents are the most reliable guardian in such distressed families as their sons and daughters in the middle-generation are incapable of rearing their children on their own. Baker, Silverstein, and Putney (2008, p. 3) highlight that about 6.5 million children in the United States live with one grandparent causing about 9% of all children nationally. This means that while the parents of these children work, grandparents are used as babysitters, who offer childcare. Consequently, families translate into multi-generational households. The grandparents living with grandchildren can be custodial or non-custodial. With custodial carer, the grandparents care for grandchildren on a full time basis. The grandparents can be relatives or non relatives the grandchildren left to care for children, especially where the motheres return to work after having a baby (Grandparents Plus). Unrelated grandparents are just day carers. Conversely, non-custodial grandparents caring for grandchildren are just day carers who are not the principle source of care for the children since their parents are either co-residents or not. However, the research notes that grandparent carers are unevenly distributed across racial groups and social classes, especially where poor families depend on them as cheap childcare that facilitates both parents to work (Grandparents Plus). Furthermore, amongst African Americans custodial grandparenting rates are very high given the historically high rates of single parenting and poverty (Backhouse 12). Extended familism’s cultural

1932, A true history of the United States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

1932, A true history of the United States - Essay Example Lincoln had envisioned a society where slavery would not be there. During Lincoln rule, his visionary of seeing many states free of British rule was seen to pass (Aljosa). The British did not like the idea of American Independence as it caused a number of uprisings against them, and so waged a personal war on the countries which had adopted the United States doctrine. The British also plotted for Abraham Lincoln’s assassination in an attempt to stop his rule and some of his principles that were corrupting countries to rebel against the British. In the coming of President William McKinley, a key individual who continued some of the philosophies of Lincoln was also another target for the British. President William McKinley was in fact assassinated by the British, and President Teddy Roosevelt took over (Aljosa). Teddy Roosevelt was a pro-British person due to his links with some of British Key allies. Many wars were fought so as to reclaim to reclaim the British Empire to its states that is the World War 1. British wanted to show that it is still superior to the United States. In conclusion, the given documentary provides a good account about the American history

Q5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Q5 - Essay Example ate and likely to be useful in a less developed country such as Chad where access to electrical grids may not be feasible due to geographical problems and in remote locations where establishing electric connections may be expensive.(www.electricityforum.com). It is also expensive to develop such grids and Chad is a poor country where substantial expenses on these developments may not be possible. But sunlight is a commodity available in plenty in this country, and this can be harnessed to generate solar power to operate cell phones and enhance communications. Such relay stations are already in use in the U.K., where grids connect PV systems are integrated into office buildings and connected to the local solar electricity network. They are used in monitoring stations, radio repeater stations, telephone kiosks and for street lighting. Solar powered relay stations were installed by the Israeli Government in 2005, all along Israeli highway no: 2 to provide electrical power for cellular phones using the energy harnessed from the sun and assimilated into the microwave relay stations. 2. Voice over Internet protocol helps in enabling voice communications through the use of IP networks such as the Internet. It offers the facility of telephony services, i.e, the facility of making and receiving calls from regular telephone lines using a computer (Wallingford, 2005). The only requirement is the availability of a broadband connection which facilitates good sound transmission quality and in the case of telephony services such as Skype, even allows chatting and calling applications in computers with firewalls that normally break such applications. As a result, it brings about a substantial reduction in the cost of making telephone calls. VoIP systems also allow for a converge of voice and data networks. The VoIP facility is useful to a knowledge worker because it enables fast and easy communication lines to be established to and from any part of the world. A knowledge

Benefits Of Mangroves Forests Environmental Sciences Essay

Benefits Of Mangroves Forests Environmental Sciences Essay The general distribution of mangrove forests are in both tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world with them only being found at latitudes of 25oN and 25oS of the equator and in as high latitudes as 32 oC which is in 117 countries (Barbier Cox 2003) where the sea surface temperature does not get lower then 16oC because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures. According to literature, it is estimated that 75% of the worlds mangrove forests are found in 15 countries (Giri, et al 2011). The proportions of mangrove forests found throughout the world are as follows (Giri et al 2011): Asia: 42% Africa: 21% North/Central America: 15% Oceana: 12% South America: 11% Mangrove forests inhabit tidal areas which include estuaries which receive a somewhat indirect tidal influence and marine shorelines which receive direct tidal influences. The forest is flushed by seawater which is brought in by high tide that inundates the forest floor for an extended period each day and at low tides the water recedes. Due to evapouration, the soil salinity becomes concentrated and raises to high levels (NOAA 2010). Benefits of mangrove forests According to Ronnback (1999) some of the products that can be had from mangrove forests are as follows: Fuel which includes firewood, charcoal and alcohol Construction material such as timber for scaffolds and heavy construction, Beams, poles, flooring, panelling, etc. Fishing: poles for fish traps, fish attracting shelters, fishing floats, fish poison and tannins for net and line preservation Food and beverages: fish, Crustaceans, Molluscs and Other fauna. Vegetables from propagules, fruit and leaves, Tea substitutes,Alcohol,Vinegar and Fermented drinks Household items: Furniture,Glue,Wax,Household utensils, Incense and Matchsticks Textiles and leather: Fur, skins, Synthetic fibres (e.g. rayon),Dye for cloth and Tannins for leather preservation Other products very useful products that can be harvested from mangrove forests are: Fish, shellfish and mangrove roots for aquarium trade Medicines from bark, leaves, fruits and seeds Fodder for cattle, goats and camels Fertilisers Lime Paper Raw material for handicraft Cigarette wrappers Ecosystems services obtain from the mangrove resource are as follows (Ronnback 1999): Acts as a natural sea defence Provides biophysical support for coastal ecosystems Provides biological regulation of ecosystem processes and functions Production of oxygen It functions as a carbon sink so it will have an impact on local and global climate It sustains the livelihood of global communities Heritage, cultural, spiritual and religious values Educational and scientific information Recreation and tourism Statement of the Problem In the years gone by mangrove forests were being increasingly destroyed by persons that are seeking a livelihood or just see the mangroves as a cheap and readily available fuel source. This leads to each one of these so called users to try to exploit this resource to their maximum benefit and cannot be prevented from doing so (free rider problem) because this resource is what we call common property which further contributes to the destruction and degradation of mangroves since there is no defined ownership or responsibilities towards the resource. In recent years many countries especially developing countries have begun to increase their economic activity in pursuit of development from which the pollution negatively affect the mangroves either directly or indirectly. Causes of mangrove degradation and destruction Negative Externalities Firstly, we know that a negative externality occurs when an individual, a group or firm makes a decision that only makes consideration for direct costs of production and not the costs of pollution caused by the consumption of the good and services produced i.e. they make a decision to produce certain goods and services which negatively affect third parties and the environment in the form of pollution whether it be air, water, etc. This pollution in some cases are unregulated which causes market inefficiency because the cost of pollution cause by the consumption of goods and services will not be reflected in the market price proposed (Helbling 2012). In the case of mangroves, there are a number of activities produce negative externalities that affect this ecosystem and cause extensive degradation and destruction. Some of the main ones are as follows (Kathiresan 2012): Agricultural expansion and encroachment e.g. vast expansion of aquaculture farms that produce shrimp in countries such as Honduras, Thailand, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, et cetera. This is also a result of increase population growth and the demand for food which requires more land to keep up with this demand so in essence its land scarcity that causes the encroachment into the mangrove forests and the land to be converted. Urbanization e.g. in Haiti mangrove mudflats are being cleared to build homes Cutting for timber, fuel and charcoal e.g. in Haiti vast areas of mangrove forests are decertified by poor farmers desperately trying to making a living from charcoal making Prevention of freshwater flow and tidal flow e.g. in Guyana when the Berbice River Bridge was first constructed, it cut off some of the tidal flow of water to a section of the mangrove forest through which it passes which caused part of the forest to start dying off Pollution e.g. in Guyana haphazardly disposed plastic bottles used in the beverage industry end up in the drains and make the way out into the sea and are washed back up on shore and are trapped in the mangrove forests where they accumulate to very large amounts and cause extensive pollution This negative externality problem can also be as a result of unallocated property rights (Schenk 2002). Even Though the mangrove resource common property status would be changed through regulation, the fact remain that the air above the mangroves and the water surrounding them (both surface and ground) are still considered as common property so anyone that are involved in economic activities cannot be told not to pollute the air over the mangrove or not to pollute the surface and ground water resources beneath the mangroves because in actuality no owns them; hence the surrounding resources will collapse as described in the Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin 1968). When the air and water (surface and ground) are polluted they will cause a great amount of degradation and destruction to the mangrove forests which will cause them to reduce in area. This has been so extensive in some areas of the world; those areas which once had mangroves are today completely without because of all the unregulated negative externalities cause by economic activities over the years (Baten 2009). Common Property Common property is basically any resource that is considered shared property or have no specific ownership or property rights and this includes a wide range of natural resources along with the goods and services that can be derived from them (Wade 1987). In many countries the mangrove forests are considered as common property in which a lot of individuals use the mangrove forest as a means of making a livelihood by harvesting its various products such as wild meat, timber, fish, shrimp, et cetera. According to Hardin (1968) in an essay titled The Tragedy of the Commons from which he basically emphasized that every individual using the resource (in this case the mangrove forest) will seek to maximize his/her benefits that are being derived from the forest and as result of this the resource will be doomed to overuse which will cause the ecosystem to become depleted and eventually collapse. This problem is evident in many countries worldwide especially in the third world countries where people consider harvesting the timber from mangrove forest is a cheap and affordable source of energy so this leads to widespread degradation and destruction (Scherr and Yadav 1996). For example in Guyana, mangrove timber was used as a source of fuel in cremation and other religious ceremonies. This was also practiced among the Hindustani community in Suriname. Solutions Negative Externalities The problem of negative externalities can be solved by the parties that are involved and one of the most common ways of doing this is through a political process that is called a tacit agreement. In this system, governments are elected that represent the citizens and to come to compromises in certain interests (Hussain 2011). In the case of the mangroves, what happens is that governments pass laws and regulations to address the negative externalities that affect the mangrove forests e.g. in countries such as Guyana, Fiji, et cetera there has been implementation of mangrove management plans that set standards, targets and processing requirements as it relates to mangroves so that destruction and degradation will be reduced. This is what is known as Command and Control Regulations which also includes environmental taxing reforms (Pigouvian taxes) where each unit of pollution is taxed (Hussain 2011) e.g. environmental tax on plastic bottles used in the beverage industry of Guyana tradable pollution permits or the creation of markets for ecological services similar to those that are used in Europe. Another strategy that can be used is through bargaining in which stakeholders can come together and come to common grounds to bring about and efficient outcome without government intervention which would put stricter sanctions on the use of the mangrove resource and this is known as the Coase Theorem (1960). This was put into practice in Jamaica to reduce the rate of deforestation of the mangrove forests as well as other forest types on lands that are privately owned. Common Property According to Hardin (1968) and others suggested the most likely solution to The Tragedy of the Commons is to impose some form of regulation on the small scale livelihood activities that utilize this natural resource since it would be in the best interest to society for this to be done. This regulation is also needed because if this ecosystem collapses, there will be a great cost that will be bourne by all of society since the many ecosystem services such as coastal protection, erosion protection, et cetera will be lost. In Guyana, the common properties status of mangrove was somewhat eliminated by designation the responsibilities of the mangrove resource to the Guyana Work Services Group (WSG) which have responsibility for sea defences and this include the mangrove resource (Guyana Mangrove Action Project 2011). Regarding the legislation that was needed to make this solution more efficient, a legislative review indicated that mangrove protection to more will be more efficient when loopholes are closed. Fortunately the legislative framework for immediate protection already existed and as it was within the power of the Minister of Agriculture to declare any tree a protected species and this was done (Guyana Mangrove Action Project 2011). On January 29, 2010 the Minister of Agriculture amended to Regulation 17 of the Principal Regulations by the substitution of the following (Guyana Mangrove Action Project 2011): Protected Trees 17. (1) No bullet-wood tree or red, black or white mangrove trees shall be felled without first obtaining the permission in writing of an authorized forest officer not below the rank of an Assistant Commissioner of Forests (GoG 2009) so this effectively listed the mangrove as a special category under the GFCs code of practice. Rangers called mangrove wardens were also trained and hired then stationed in a newly established mangrove management units which has the responsibility to regulate any activities taking place within the mangrove forests. Since the implementation of this plan, there has been a positive response in the acreage of the mangroves forest. There has actually been an increase in the area of mangrove forests on Guyanas coast and this has been possible through revegetation and afforestation programmes (Guyana Mangrove Action Project 2011). There has even been natural mangrove regeneration in areas where there hasnt been any growth in many decades because of the unregulated usage that was previously allowed. Discussion In the solution that was used to curb the negative externalities that affected the mangrove resource what was done is that by implementing the environmental tax on goods and services, the cost of the damage that was done to the resource was internalised into the market prices of the goods and service that were produced by the industries which were negatively affecting the resource directly or indirectly. Hence the cost of the damages done to the mangroves was no longer an external cost and this eliminated this inefficiency that was present beforehand (Pigou 1920). Although Pigouvian taxes are an efficient ways of handling the negative externalities that would affect the mangrove resource because basically the more the tax is raised, the more incentive there will be to reduce the level of negative externalities (Mankiw 1998). However, Carlton and Loury (1980) argued that a pure Pigouvian tax instrument will fail to address this problem over the long run so it must be combined with other instruments such as technology and performance standards. With the solution taken toward the common property problem, the strategy simply just reduced the level of access to the mangrove forest which was done using governmental policies that now restricts the way in which the resource is used i.e. a command and control regulation. This system by itself is inefficient hence so they would have to be combined with an incentive or market based solution in the form of fines for breaching the newly set policies hence individuals and firms will have an incentive to follow the policies in order to avoid having to pay the fines (U.S Environmental Protection Agency 2010). Conclusion In the past because of the open-access or common property nature of the mangrove resource we saw that most of the market benefits where only gained by a few select individuals or firms while the non-consumptive benefits (erosion protection, oxygen production, carbon sequestration, et cetera) which could benefit all of society was only short lived. Now that that resource is regulated we can see that it will stay intact for longer periods of time and we can see society benefiting more from it because the non-consumptive benefits (marginal benefits) would be increased and the marginal cost of the resource to society would be decreased.

Education and Act 48 Essay -- Education School Legislation Teaching Es

Education and Act 48 On November 23,1999 Governor Ridge signed Act 48 of 1999, enacting new requirements for professional education (formerly professional development) plans. The legislation also requires that all certified educators complete six college credits, six credits of continuing professional education courses, 180 clock hours of continuing professional education, or any combination of collegiate studies, continuing professional education courses or learning experiences equivalent to 180 hours every five years. For the purposes of calculating hours and credits, one credit of collegiate studies or continuing professional education courses is equivalent to 30 hours of continuing professional education. The professional education requirements take effect July 1, 2000 for all certified educators and will support achievement of the Pennsylvania Academic Standards, the Chapter 49 Teacher Certification Standards, and high standards for all educators and student. The information below has been rese arched directly from the Pennsylvania Department of Education’s Act 48-Professional Development Plan. The Act 48 plan requires that â€Å"upon expiration of an existing professional development plan, each school entity (district, intermediate unit (Ill), area-vocational-technical school (AVTS), joint school district, charter school, the Scotland School for Veterans Children and the Scranton School for the Deaf) submit a three-year professional education plan to the Department of Education for approval.† Approved schools for special education are also required to comply with Act 48 by the Bureau of Special Education. This plan is based on national standards, state standards and the individual needs of the district. Professional education plans from IUs, approved schools for special education and state-owned schools are submitted by June 30 in two phases. School district and AVTS professional education plans are due with a strategic plan by September 30 in the assigned phase. Private schools may also submit a professional education plan for approval so they can be an approved professional education provider. This, however, is an option to private schools and is not mandated by the state because they do not receive federal funding in the way that public schools do so. Wallenpaupack Area School District is currently in phase one of the strategic plan... ...www.ed.gov/pubs/PrisonersOfTime/index.html] Professional development: Changing times. (1994). Policy Briefs, Report 4. Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. ED376618 State Higher Education Executive Officers Association [SHEEO]. (1991, August). Higher education and school reform: Creating the partnership. Denver, CO: Author. ED 337,110. Tanner, B., Canady, R. L., & Rettig, R. L. (1995). Scheduling time to maximize staff development opportunities. Journal of Staff Development, 16(4): 14-19. EJ522303 Taylor, T. A. (2000, May 24). Congress confronts Goals 2000, national service. AACTE Briefs, p. 1. Troen, V., & Bolles, K. (1994). Two teachers examine the power of teacher leadership. In D. R. Walling (Ed.), Teachers as leaders. Perspectives on the professional development of teachers (pp. 275-86). Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. ED379283 Voices from the field: 30 expert opinions on America 2000, The Bush administration strategy to "reinvent" America's schools. (2001, April). Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership and William T. Grant Foundation, Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship. ED 336 823